Management. Views of Fayol and Mintzberg Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Management. Views of Fayol and Mintzberg - Essay Example This research paper explains what management is and examines basic management theories and definitions to compare and contrast each of them with others. This paper addresses management as an organizational function as well a topic for academic research and study. Management Managing is an extremely important and perhaps one of the most challenging activities in today’s complex society and especially in the contemporary business contexts. Various factors and forces such as globalization, competition, quality-concerns of customers about goods and services, changes in consumer requirements etc make ‘managing’ a more challenging and rather highly rewarding task. Management is generally defined as an ‘art of getting things done through others’ (Dessler and Phillips, 2007, p. 4). This definition by Herold Koontz denotes to various underlying concepts of managing such as delegation of authority, planning for some things to be done and executing them through people and available resources and coordinating and controlling it. Management is an art, science, technique, method, process or strategy by which people work with others and available resources to help the organization reach its destination. Management is therefore a goal oriented process. As Bateman and Snell (2003) described, management is the process or practice by which people (managers) work with other people and resources in order to accomplish the already set goals of the organization both effectively and efficiently. To be efficient means to achieve goals and organizational objectives with minimal waste of resources by making best use of money, time, technology, materials and people, whereas effectiveness refers to achieving the right organizational goals at right time through right ways. Managers do things differently with effective strategies and techniques and by using the organized knowledge that in turn help them make their organizations unique and ultimately successfu l. The general management thought can be affected largely by demographic, geographic and social influences from business to business. However, management theories and definitions are still applicable to varying situations in firms around the world. In today’s complex business contexts, it is very evident that management is merely the process of managing the total resources of an organization. Herold Koontz’s definition talks about delegation of authority and making people work for getting in to the ultimate goals. It is thus related to how effectively managing both people and other resources. People are used by managers to get their things done through. They moreover effectively and efficiently utilize the available materials as well. When it comes to the management practices in place today, Bateman and Snell (2003) argued that no manager is always right or always wrong, but some managers are getting it in to the right path more often than some other managers are doing (p. 6). Views of Fayol and Mintzberg In management study, the views of Henry Fayol and Henry Minzberg have gained considerable attention as their studies and findings have explored management as a function and role that managers do. Henry Fayol, famously renowned as father of modern management, defined management as â€Å"to forecast and plan, to organize, to command, to coordinate and to control† (Cole, 2004, p. 6). He asserted that management was characterized by five specific functions; that are planning, organizing, commanding,

The Importance Of Water Recycling Environmental Sciences Essay

The Importance Of Water Recycling Environmental Sciences Essay The aim is to review the importance of water recycling and the unending effects of hard water all round us. Objective is to achieve a clear understanding of the present and future benefits of water recycling and why it is still practised today. A number of up-to-date water recycling tehnologies are studied to an extent. The perpetual need for the various solutions in softening hard water is looked into retrospectively carefully highlighting typical problems likely to occur. Water is a common substance that is essential to all forms of life. A massive 75 percent of planet earth is covered in water and is mostly found in oceans and large water bodies. Of this total volume of water, 97 percent is saltwater and 3 percent is freshwater. 69 percent of this freshwater is glacial and 31 percent is groundwater. For billions of years, earth has been reusing water over and over again in a natural process called the hydrologic cycle (BENEFITS OF RECYCLING., 2010). This cycle is the path water takes as it circulates from the land to the sky and back again. 1.1 Water Recycling Water recycling is a natural process which relies on technology to speed up such projects. It is sometimes described as unplanned and planned (GREYWATER RECYCLING SYSTEMS., 2010). By unplanned, this means for example, when cities draw their water supplies from rivers that receive waste water upstream from these cities. Water from these rivers has been reused, treated and piped into the water supply a number of times before the last downstream use withdraws the water (GREYWATER RECYCLING SYSTEMS., 2010). However, that of planned water recycling projects is developed with the aim of reusing a recycled water supply. Recycled water is waste water that has been treated and processed for useful nonpotable purposes such as agricultural, landscape, public parks, and golf course irrigation (GREYWATER RECYCLING SYSTEMS., 2010). Other nonpotable applications include cooling water for power plants and oil refineries, industrial process water for facilities such as paper mills and carpet dyers, toilet flushing, dust control, construction activities, concrete mixing, and artificial lakes (GREYWATER RECYCLING SYSTEMS., 2010). In an industrial facility, water is recycled and reused onsite used in cooling processes for example (GREYWATER RECYCLING SYSTEMS., 2010). Although most water recycling projects have been developed to meet the demands of nonpotable water, a number of them use recycled water indirectly for potable purposes (GREYWATER RECYCLING SYSTEMS., 2010). These projects include recharging ground water aquifers and augmenting surface water reservoirs with recycled water (OASIS DESIGN., 2009). Recycled water can be spread or even injected into ground water aquifers to augment ground water supplies, and to prevent salt water intrusion in coastal areas. Environmentally, water recycling provides tremendous benefits. Water recycling can help us find ways to reduce the diversion of water from sensitive ecosystems by providing a supplementary source of water. The lack of sufficient water flow, as a result of diversion for agricultural, urban, and industrial purposes, can cause impairment of water quality and ecosystem health for plants, wildlife, and fish which depend on adequate water flow to their habitat for sustenance and reproduction ( OASIS DESIGN., 2009). For streams that have been dried from water diversion, recycled water may be used to build these habitats (GREYWATER RECYCLING SYSTEMS., 2010). Water flow can be augmented with recycled water to develop and sustain the aquatic and wildlife habitats (GREYWATER RECYCLING SYSTEMS., 2010). 1.2 GreyWater Greywater is water that has been used domestically (from baths, showers, clothes washers, and wash-hand basins) except for water from toilets (GREYWATER RECYCLING SYSTEMS., 2010). Greywater takes up 50 80% of household wastewater (OASIS DESIGN., 2009). Wastewater produced by toilets is called black water (OASIS DESIGN., 2009). However wastewater from kitchen sinks and dish-washers is also considered to be black water as well due to the presence of organic contents (OASIS DESIGN., 2009). The clearest purpose of recycling domestic grey water is that it replaces potable water use (OASIS DESIGN., 2009). 2 BUILD-UP OF TOXIC ORGANIC POLLUTANTS FROM RECYCLING In water treatment, a wide range of chemicals are added in excess due to poor operation or accidents (GRAY N. F., 2005). However, most of these chemicals are discharged with the finished water product due to the nature of the processes themselves. These include iron, aluminium, and organic compounds used as coagulates, such as polycrylamide (GRAY N. F., 2005). These chemicals result in odour and discolouration in the water as well as poor taste. Furthermore, the new Drinking Water Directive sets limit values for all these compounds. Chemicals such as chlorine and fluorine are added intentionally to protect the public from pathogens and teeth decay respectively (GRAY N. F., 2005). 3 THE NEGATIVE PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF DRINKING SEWAGE WATER The increasing concern of the public is reflected by a large rise in the sales of bottled water and home treatment systems (GRAY N.F., 2008). The view of reusing sewage water for the purpose of drinking water ignorantly puts people off now and again. However, the knowledge of water recycling plays a big role here so educating the consumer about water quality and the regulatory functions of water undertakers is mandatory (GRAY N.F., 2008). All water is reused and with the system of treatment in place, sewage water can be drinkable. The use of chlorine in water treatment is a major source of complaint with consumers (GRAY N.F., 2008). The prevailing reasons for boiling water, buying bottled water or the use of home treatment systems are over an improvement in taste and health concerns. There is a strong belief that bottled water is safer and purer to drink which unfortunately is not always true. The media also plays a role in the influence of attitudes towards water and the assessment risk (GRAY N.F., 2008). 4 REGULATIONS In protecting public health, conditions and regulations have been made to allow for the safe use of reclaimed water. Reclaimed water often provides a vital water supply and fertilizer source (METCALF EDDY., 2003). For most developing countries, the greatest concern with the use of wastewater for irrigation is that untreated or treated wastewater can possess quite a number of intestinal nematodes (e.g., Ascaris and Trichuris species and hookworms) and bacterial pathogens which are often difficult to control (METCALF EDDY., 2003). The health of the general public consuming farm produce that have been contaminated by the wastewater infected by these viral and bacterial agents can deteriorate over time. The world health organisation suggest that irrigation of farm produce prone to be eaten uncooked, sports fields, and public parks should be irrigated with wastewater dealt with stabilization ponds (METCALF EDDY., 2003). From country to country, regulations in reusing water and wastewat er vary. In England and Wales, Drinking Water Inspectorate control the standard of drinking water provided (GRAY N. F., 2005). However, the quality of the water is the privatised water companies responsibility (GRAY N. F., 2005).These responsibilities are regulated by the Office of Water Services and it also controls the price of water before hitting the market. The Environment Agency for England and Wales is responsible for controlling water pollution, regulating waste and manage integrated pollution control (IPC) licensing (GRAY N. F., 2005). It also has the duty to issue licenses for water control functions, promote the conservation and enhancements of freshwater to promote the recreational use of freshwater, to improve and develop fisheries and regulate them, to issue flood warnings and the provision of defences to reduce the risk of sea and river flooding, the issuing of land drainage consents and many other tasks (GRAY N. F., 2005). The Agency points out water protection zones , protects groundwater and sets the objectives for water quality (GRAY N. F., 2005). 5 PRECAUTIONS Dont store grey water Grey water should be used within 24 hours before the build up of bacteria develops. After this period, it is on its way to becoming septic, that is, black water (LETS GO GREEN., 2009). Avoid contamination and contact Identify grey water plumbing by labelling it. The use of gloves is vital when in contact with grey water filters or anything that has come in contact with it (LETS GO GREEN., 2009). Use only grey water that is fairly clean to start with. If otherwise, it should be diverted to a sewer or septic system (LETS GO GREEN., 2009). Microorganisms on consumable goods Untreated grey water possesses some microorganisms which affect lawns, or fruits and vegetables that are eaten raw (e.g., strawberries, lettuce, carrots) to an extent (LETS GO GREEN., 2009). Contamination of surface water Grey water should be disposed of properly either underground or in a mulch (a mulch is a covering made up of rotten vegetable matter which prevents evaporation and soil erosion). The addition of grey water to an already soaked soil should be avoided (LETS GO GREEN., 2009). 6 DESALINATION Desalination involves removing dissolved minerals from aquatic bodies to create drinking water (CITY OF RYDE, 2009). 15-50% of water is recovered with the other portion being brine (CITY OF RYDE, 2009). A few technologies have been produced for the execution of this process, including the best known and common membrane process is the reverse osmosis (CITY OF RYDE, 2009). http://www.esru.strath.ac.uk/EandE/Web_sites/98-9/offshore/ro.gif Figure 2: Diagram showing osmotic and reverse osmotic flow (Source: Courtesy of FWPBDP., 2010) Countries which do not have the advantage of continual fresh water supplies, competition for fresh water continually soars (TENE A. 2010). Israel is regarded pioneer in the area of desalination (TENE A. 2010). Following the water crisis in Israel, the state of water economy improved to an extent that even during harsh drought years, the water economy will continue to flourish since the water in the sea would not be running out anytime soon (TENE A. 2010). This sea water is pumped to as much volume is required and the final desalinated water is supplied as necessary. Another type of separation technique is the evaporation process (PEREIRA H.C. 1973). Developing economies such as California have warm climates of high evaporation rates (PEREIRA H.C. 1973). Its primary water resource is the sea where the evaporation process is practised. It is an effective alternative to water recycling in water poor regions (PEREIRA H.C. 1973). 7 FUTURE OF WATER RECYCLING Recycling is generally vital to our planets future. The rate at which the earths highly valued resources are been consumed is taking a rapid turn and many of these resources are not renewable (U.S. EPA., 2009). Recycling as a process takes considerably less energy to reuse an existing product than to source and make one from scratch (U.S. EPA., 2009). Water recycling has certainly established beyond doubt to be effective and resourceful in developing a new and reliable water supply. Nonpotable reuse is a widely accepted practise that will continue to expand (YOSHIKAWA N., 2006). Advances in wastewater treatment technology and health studies of indirect potable reuse will become common soon (YOSHIKAWA N., 2006). As water and environmental needs becomes urgent, water recycling would play a greater role in our long-term water supply (U.S. EPA., 2009). 8 WATER RECYCLING TECHNOLOGY The type of wastewater is essential for determining the kind of treatment plant and technologies to employ. Wastewater primarily arises from water usage by residential, commercial and industrial institutions including groundwater, surface water and storm water as shown in Figure 3. Figure 3: Sources of Wastewater (Source: Courtesy of ESCWA., 2003). Typical examples of water recycling systems in the domestic or industrial field are flotation and sedimentation, of which both are relevant to the chemical industry. 8.1 Flotation Flotation is a unit process used to remove solid or liquid from any form of liquid by releasing fine gas, usually air bubbles into it (ESCWA., 2003). The gas bubbles would stick to the liquid or would get trapped in the particle structure of the suspended solids, raising the floaty force of the particle and gas bubbles put together (ESCWA., 2003). Particles having a higher density than the liquid would be able rise. Flotation is used to remove suspended matter and to concentrate biological sludge in wastewater treatment (ESCWA., 2003). Flotation has an advantage over the sedimentation process in that; very minute and light particles are easily removed in a quicker time frame (ESCWA., 2003). Table 1: Data of Flotation Methods Process Brief Descriptions Dissolved Air Flotation Wastewater is subjected to the pressure of several atmospheres while air is introduced into it. The pressure then returns to atmospheric level, allowing the air to be released as small bubbles after a short time. These bubbles which stick to the suspended matter where it is removed by a skimming device. Air Flotation By the application of a revolving impellers or through diffusers, gas is passed into the liquid directly at atmospheric pressure Vacuum Flotation Wastewater is saturated with air. With the application of a partial vacuum, the dissolved air results in escaping as minute bubbles where they form a scam blanket. This blanket is removed by a skimming device. Source: Courtesy of ESCWA., 2003. Figure 4: A typical Flotation unit (ESCWA., 2003). 8.2 Sedimentation Sedimentation is a widely used unit operation in water and wastewater treatment (ESCWA., 2003). It involves the gravitational settling of suspended solids in a mixture usually water (ESCWA., 2003). These suspended solids are removed from suspensions by allowing it gravitate to the floor of a tank to form a sludge under near still conditions (ESCWA., 2003). This tank is referred to as a clarifier (ESCWA., 2003). It comprises of three main designs. They are; Horizontal flow clarifiers They can either be rectangular, square or circular in shape. The flow in rectangular clarifiers is rectilinear and parallel to the long axis of the basin. Furthermore, the water flows radially from the centre towards the outer edges in circular clarifiers. The clarifiers are usually made up of steel or reinforced concrete (ESCWA., 2003). Solid contact clarifiers They get solids into contact with a suspended layer of sludge near the bottom that acts as a blanket. The solids put in cumulate and remain trapped within the sludge blanket. As the solids remain below, the liquid is able to rise upwards (ESCWA., 2003). Inclined surface basins The flow here is laminar and there is little or no wind effect. Inclined trays are used to divide the depth into shallower sections, reducing the settling times in the process (ESCWA., 2003). Figure 5: Parts of a circular clarifier (Source: Courtesy of ESCWA., 2003). 9 HARD WATER Hard water is simply referred to as water that contains more minerals than ordinary water (FREE DRINKING WATER., 2009). Water that is said to be hard possesses minerals made up of calcium and magnesium compounds (FREE DRINKING WATER., 2009). This water usually comes from aquifers and other underground sources that collect dissolved minerals from rocks (FREE DRINKING WATER., 2009). Minerals of these sought reduces the ability of soap to lather and the ease of rinsing anything being washed made difficult. On the other hand, soft water is treated water that contains only sodium ion (FREE DRINKING WATER., 2009). Figure 6: Diagram showing hard and soft water processes (Source: Courtesy of LENNTECH., 2009). 9.1 PROBLEMS WITH HARD WATER Every cleaning task from laundering and dish washing to bathing and personal care is made unreasonably difficult taking up time and energy. The quantity of hardness minerals in water would determine the soap and detergent level required for cleaning. Additional detergent would have to be added to achieve the desired goal. Dishes and glasses washed using hard water may not be totally clean possessing certain spots when dry. The same goes with clothes which may feel harsh and scratchy when worn. Furthermore, skin was led with hard water may leave the skin feeling itchy and dry certainly not a remedy for skins with conditions such as eczema (HEIDEKAMP A. J., 2005). A number of detergents have ingredients that would mix with hard water minerals leaving a white deposit on clothing, making it look faded and worn out. Heated hard water affects water-using appliances (HEIDEKAMP A. J., 2005). It forms a scale of calcium and magnesium minerals which contributes to the inefficient and costly of these appliances (HEIDEKAMP A. J., 2005). Pipes become clogged with scale that impedes water flow and would in no time require pipe replacement. When hard water is heated, calcium ions react with bicarbonate ions to form an insoluble compound called calcium carbonate which is responsible for the scaling in pipes (HEIDEKAMP A. J., 2005). This is depicted in the equation below; 9.2 SOFTEN WATER TECHNIQUES 9.2.1 Lime-Soda Ash Technique It is the most common water softening method which involves the addition of slaked lime to hard water in water plants (FREE DRINKING WATER., 2009). Lime and soda ash are used because they are readily accessible and cost effective for softening water (FREE DRINKING WATER., 2009). Non-carbonate hardness is in turn reduced by the addition of soda ash to form insoluble precipitate which is also removed by filtration. Slaked lime is used to remove calcium bicarbonate from water (FREE DRINKING WATER., 2009). In this method, the slaked lime ions react with the calcium bicarbonate to form a slightly soluble calcium carbonate. This precipitate is usually removed by allowing it settle and then filtering (FREE DRINKING WATER., 2009). Additional lime is used in removing magnesium (FREE DRINKING WATER., 2009). This treatment becomes more costly as the hardness level has to be reduced to less than 5 grains. The use of the lime-soda ash treatment in homes was farfetched because of the equipment siz e and high cost involved in running one and even owning one (FREE DRINKING WATER., 2009). 9.2.2 Ion Exchange Columns Technique Ions could either be positively or negatively charged. A positive charge ion is called a cation while a negatively charged ion is an anion. The minerals, calcium and magnesium, that result in hardness are positively charged cations (NORDEN R. L., 2010). An ion exchange water softener has three main parts; A resin tank containing small beads of synthetic resin, A brine tank, The control valve (NORDEN R. L., 2010). When using ion exchange equipment, calcium and magnesium are exchanged for sodium from the brine tank (NORDEN R. L., 2010). As water passes through the resin tank, the sodium ions are exchanged with calcium and magnesium ions (NORDEN R. L., 2010). This is because the calcium and magnesium ions have a higher positive charge than the sodium ions. As the calcium and magnesium attach themselves to the resin beads is released simultaneously into the water. After the sodium in the resin, medium is exhausted, the medium can be regenerated by the sodium from the brine tank (NORDEN R. L., 2010). People with health problems such as heart or circulation problems, or are on low sodium diets may need to avoid using the ion exchange because of the high sodium content (NORDEN R. L., 2010). It is not even recommended for watering lawns or plants due to the sodium content present. However, potassium can be used in replacing sodium but it costs more. It is highly recommended that only hot water in a h ome be softened because the hot water line and heater benefits and the rate of soap consumptions are reduced (NORDEN R. L., 2010). Another importance in using the ion exchange equipment is that, it removes traces of iron as well to an extent because it is a positively charged ion (NORDEN R. L., 2010). 9.2.3 Chemical Conditioners/Suppressants Technique Chemical conditioning involves the addition of polyphosphates (SOUTHERN WATER., 2005). This reduces the availability of calcium in the formation of deposits. This would result in the water behaving as though softening although this would be false regarding the removal of calcium. A measure of this supposed softening is that such water would need less soap or detergent to lather. The polyphosphates can easily be set up by installing a relatively cheap dispenser in the pipework that could easily treat all the water going into the property (SOUTHERN WATER., 2005). When exhausted in the dispenser, the polyphosphates usually in solid glass-like balls are added at any appropriate time frame (SOUTHERN WATER., 2005). Alternatively, using polyphosphates helps to reduce traces of lead from any lead pipework but this should not be a guaranteed reason for using this technique (SOUTHERN WATER., 2005). HARD WATER CONTAINING CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM ENTERING SOFTNER SOFTEN WATER CONTAINING SODIUM CONCLUSION Water is reusable. A high percentage of our water is recycled and the same water has been around for a long time. In this effect, water technologies have been cleverly developed in keeping this natural tradition alive. Hard water is water that contains calcium and magnesium ions, and can be reversed by softening it thereby leaving it usable in homes and industries. It has a costly effect on most equipment in our homes and a health risk in humans. In softening hard water, the rate at which all these negative effects take its course would be minimised.

The Declaration of Independence Essay example -- essays research paper

The Declaration of Independence   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal and that they are endowed by the Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness-That to secure these Rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their justice Powers from the consent of the Governed, that whenever any form of Government becomes destructive of these Ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government† (The Declaration of Independence, www.founding.com). Upon these words, the founding fathers of the United States of America declared independence from Great Britain. In July of 1776, the thirteen colonies: New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, signed the completed Declaration of Independence and formally marked their separation f rom Great Britain (The Declaration of Independence, Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2000). Even more, the document established the new American revolutionary government and officially declared war against Britain.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Declaration of Independence was the colonists’ reaction to King George’s III new policy of control over all of British North America. Upon gaining new land from France following the French and Indian War, King George and th...

Learning as a Process and as a Product Essay

When you ask people what do they think about learning? They only think in the final result. Isn’t to important to comprehend what that really means, and how big and important is the process. It is to simple to analyze what we have been learned before just making us the question If we really remember what we learned? But no everyone think in learning as a process. How do we learned that? If it was difficult? It’s the same learning as a process and as a product? Learning is the end product of some process. But when is learning a product? Learning as a product is when a person knows completely and totally that he/she dominates the knowledge, but also he/she have been qualify to do that â€Å"knowledge† what it means that he/she not just know the theory but also have the experience. The final product of the learning may show the capacity or level of each student and let the teacher know who needs more practice in a specific area. It depends on what they were working on, but it doesn’t mean that they are going to tell you or notice that the student really acquires the knowledge or the skill or if they need a more advanced or lower level to do the activities. Wich it means that learning as a product is the goal that the â€Å"learning process† must have. Learning as a process will be the behavior changes of certain experiences that people have had. Learning as a process goes further than learning as a product, because in one what it matters is the final result, and in another one what it matters is how was it? It’s not the same if I learned something just memorizing without practice. Besides If a learn something with theory and practice my final result it’s going to be better. It’s to important the process in which each person learned, because that will ensure you that you really understand and dominate what people taught you. That’s why everyone should recognize the difference between learning as a product and as a process.

Graphene Replaced with Copper

Graphene replaced with copper Graphene nanoribbons have a current-carrying capacity two orders of magnitude higher than copper Recent research into the properties of graphene nanoribbons provides two new reasons for using the material for interconnects in future computer chips. In widths as narrow as 16 nm, graphene has a current-carrying capacity approximately a thousand times greater than copper while providing improved thermal conductivity. The current-carrying and heat-transfer measurements were reported by a team of researchers from the Georgia Institute of Technology (Atlanta, GA). The same team had previously reported measurements of resistivity in graphene that suggest the material’s conductance would outperform that of copper in future generations of nanometer-scale interconnects. The graphene nanoribbons have a current-carrying capacity two orders of magnitude higher than copper at these size scales, according to Raghunath Murali, a senior research engineer at Georgia Tech. {draw:frame} Composed of thin layers of graphite, graphene has been studied by the Georgia Tech team as a potential replacement for copper in on-chip interconnects wires. The graphene nanoribbons have a current-carrying capacity of more than 108 A/cm2, which makes them very robust in resisting electromigration and should greatly improve chip reliability. This electromigration phenomenon causes transport of material, especially at high-current density and leads to a break in the wire and, consequently, chip failure. The research team also discovered that the graphene nanoribbons also have excellent thermal conductivity properties and can conduct heat away from devices. They found that graphene nanoribbons have a thermal conductivity of more than 1,000 W/m Kelvin for structures less than 20 nm wide. This will help the interconnects serve as heat spreaders in future generations of integrated circuits, according to Murali. They used electron beam lithography to construct four electrode contacts, then used lithography to fabricate devices consisting of parallel nanoribbons of widths ranging between 16 and 52 nm and lengths of between 0. 2 and 1  µm. The breakdown current density of the nanoribbons was then studied by slowly applying an increasing amount of current to the electrodes on either side of the parallel nanoribbons. A drop in current flow indicated the breakdown of one or more of the nanoribbons. In the study of 21 test devices, the researchers found that the breakdown current density of graphene nanoribbons has a reciprocal relationship to the resistivity. Because graphene can be patterned using conventional chip-making processes, manufacturers could make the transition from copper to graphene without a drastic change in chip fabrication. The data they developed so far look very promising for using this material as the basis for future on-chip interconnects. Visit www. youtube. com/watch? v=kd6zzwhfEqw to view a video explaining graphene’s thermal-conductivity capabilities. Though one of graphene’s key properties is reported to be ballistic transport—meaning electrons can flow through it without resistance—the material’s actual conductance is limited by factors that include scattering from impurities, line-edge roughness and from substrate phonons—vibrations in the substrate lattice. Use of graphene interconnects could help facilitate continuing increases in integrated circuit performance once features sizes drop to approximately 20 nanometers, which could happen in the next five years, researchers said. At that scale, the increased resistance of copper interconnects could offset performance increases, meaning that without other improvements, higher density wouldn’t produce faster integrated circuits. This is not a roadblock to achieving scaling from one generation to the next, but it is a roadblock to achieving increased performance. Dimensional scaling could continue, but because we would be giving up so much in terms of resistivity, we wouldn’t get a performance advantage from that. That’s the problem we hope to solve by switching to a different materials system for interconnects Survey in graphene replaced with copper PORTLAND, Ore. —Graphene will carry nearly 1,000-times more current and run over 10-times cooler than conventional copper interconnects below 22-nanometer line widths, according to researchers at the Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech). The speed (electron mobility) of graphene has already been touted as better than copper, but this Georgia Tech data on nanoribbons as small as 16-nanometers quantifies just how superior carbon is to copper. The graphene nanoribbons tested at Georgia Tech could carry as much as 10 billion amps per square centimeter—nearly a thousand times greater than copper. â€Å"No one had measured graphene's current carrying capacity before this,† said Raghunath Murali, a senior research engineer in Georgia Tech's Nanotechnology Research Center. One possible reason that this property of graphene was not touted before is that there were no experimental results until our work. † The superior current carrying capability of carbon formed into graphene nanoribbons is also combined with less heat build-up, since carbon's thermal conductivity is much higher than copper. Nanoribbons have a thermal conductivity of 1,000-to-5000 watts per meter Kelvin—ten times greater than copper . The Georgia Tech researchers also claim that graphene nanoribbons will mitigate electro-migration which is an increasing problem for copper as line widths descend to the nanoscale. If the current carried through a wire is close to the current-carrying capacity of the wire, then the chances of electromigration are greater than if the current in the wire is much smaller than the current-carrying capacity,† said Murali. â€Å"Graphene has over two orders of magnitude greater capacity than copper, thus if a graphene wire is compared to a copper wire carrying the same current, then the graphene wire will better resist electromigration. † Murali's team obtained their graphene samples by removing layers from a graphite block and depositing them on a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafer. E-beam lithograhy was used to construct the metal contacts and cut the parallel lines of graphene into lines 16-to-52 nanometers wide and 200-to-1000 nanometers long. There are three hurdles remaining to commercialization of carbon interrconnects, according to the researchers at Georgia Tech: perfecting methods of growing monolayers of graphene over entire wafers (since today only small centimeter-sized areas can be easiliy grown in monolayers), fabricating vias to interrconnect graphene nanowires, and integration of carbon into the back-end of process on a CMOS line. Murali performed the work with fellow researchers Yinxiao Yang, Kevin Brenner, Thomas Beck and James Meindl. This research was funded by the Semiconductor Research Corporation, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), the Interconnect Focus Center, the Nanoelectronics Research Initiative and the Institute for Nanoelectronics Discovery and Exploration (INDEX). Replacing silicon {draw:frame} Silicon transisitors are approaching the point where further miniturization will no longer be possible. It is expected that once silicon transistors reach 16nm size, optical lithography will no longer be capable of making smaller images. Thus, unless all preogress in transistor size is terminated and performance improvements are limited to processor architecture alone, it is very likely that chip manufacturers will move to graphene as a way to get smaller transisitors. One example is that graphene transistors are very â€Å"leaky† compared to those made of silicon- that is, more charge can escape from them. This means that graphene chips are likely to run much hotter than silicon chips. Graphene has several very appealing traits. Electrons meet much less resistance from graphene than they do from silicon, traveling through it more than 100 times as easily. And because graphene is essentially a two-dimensional material, building smaller devices with it and controlling the flow of electricity within them are easier than with three-dimensional alternatives like silicon transistors. The finding underscores graphene's potential for serving as an excellent electronic material, such as silicon, that can be used to develop new kinds of transistors based on quantum physics. Because they encounter no obstacles, the electrons in graphene roam freely across the sheet of carbon, conducting electric charge with extremely low resistance. The research team, led by Chun Ning (Jeanie) Lau, found that the electrons in graphene are reflected back by the only obstacle they meet: graphene's boundaries. â€Å"These electrons meet no other obstacles and behave like quantum billiard balls. â€Å"They display properties that resemble both particles and waves. † when the electrons are reflected from one of the boundaries of graphene, the original and reflected components of the electron can interfere with each other, the way outgoing ripples in a pond might interfere with ripples reflected back from the banks. he â€Å"electronic interference† by measuring graphene's electrical conductivity at extremely low (0. 26 Kelvin) temperatures. She explained that at such low temperatures the quantum properties of electrons can be studied more easily. The electrons in graphene can display wave-like properties, which could lead to interesting applications such as ballistic transistors, which is a new type of transistor, as w ell as resonant cavities for electrons, that a resonant cavity is a chamber, like a kitchen microwave, in which waves can bounce back and forth. Scientifically, it has become a new odel system for condensed-matter physics, the branch of physics that deals with the physical properties of solid materials. Graphene enables table-top experimental tests of a number of phenomena in physics involving quantum mechanics and relativity. Bearing excellent material properties, such as high current-carrying capacity and thermal conductivity, graphene ideally is suited for creating components for semiconductor circuits and computers comparing with silicon. Its planar geometry allows the fabrication of electronic devices and the tailoring of a variety of electrical properties. Because it is only one-atom thick, it can potentially be used to make ultra-small devices and further miniaturize electronics. Image shows graphene, which can act as an atomic-scale billiard table, with electric charges acting as billiard balls. (Credit: Lau lab, UC-Riverside) Silicon has been the main ingredient in microchips since they replaced vacuum tubes in electronics. But the common element graphene, found in pencils, may one day supplant silicon on the billion-dollar foundries of IBM, Intel and AMD. Graphene shares the characteristics that make silicon so ubiquitous, not just in computers and cell phones, but in such applications as medical and aviation sensors, ultrahigh-frequency analog electronics for preparing signals for fiber-optic transmission or for radars. Graphene can do what silicon can, only better. Graphene has extraordinary electron-transport properties; its monolayer thickness yields exquisite sensitivity to changes in environment, and its mechanical and thermal properties equal or exceed those of the best conventional materials. The superior properties of graphene and graphene-related materials present an extraordinary opportunity for enabling new classes of electronic, optoelectronic and electromechanical devices and sensors The first commercial use for graphene may be as an electrical coating for LCD screens, solar cells, and touch screens. Thin, transparent, extremely conductive, and strong, it seems ideal for the job. ONE OF THE APPLICATION Graphene Quilts to Keep Things Cool December 21, 2009 {draw:frame} Graphene University of California, Riverside (UCR) Professor of Electrical Engineering and Chair of Materials Science and Engineering Alexander Balandin is leading several projects to explore ways to use the unique capabilities of graphene â€Å"quilts† as heat conductors in high-power electronics. Graphene is a recently discovered single-atom-thick carbon crystal, which reveals many unique properties. In Balandin’s designs, graphene â€Å"quilts† (large-area overlapping networks of graphene flakes) will play quite an opposite role of your grandma’s quilts. They will remove heat instead of retaining it. His work on graphene heat-conducting coats for heat removal from high-power gallium-nitride transistors is being funded by a recently awarded $420,000 grant from U. S. Office of Naval Research (ONR). It aims at an experimental proof-of-concept demonstration to be conducted in Balandin’s Nano-Device Laboratory (NDL). In addition to the ONR grant, Balandin received a new three-year subcontract with the Interconnect Focus Center (IFC), based at the Georgia Institute of Technology, that deals with graphene interconnects and heat spreaders for three-dimensional (3-D) electronics. According to the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, in the next five years, up to 80 percent of microprocessor power will be consumed by the interconnect wiring—a driver for the search for new interconnect materials and innovative methods of heat removal. Another recent subcontract awarded to Balandin is with the Functional Engineered Nano Architectonics (FENA) center based at UCLA. In this center, he investigates the problems of energy dissipation in graphene nanostructures and nanodevices. Combined new funding secured by Balandin this month for the three projects exceeds $1 million. The centers’ funding comes from the Semiconductor Research Corporation (SRC) and Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA). Because graphene is only one molecule thick, it didn’t lend itself to traditional methods of thermal conductivity measurement. Balandin led a team of researchers that first measured it using an original non-conventional technique in 2008. The procedure involved a non-contact approach on the basis of Raman spectroscopy utilizing the inelastic scattering of photons (light) by phonons (crystal vibrations). The power dissipated in graphene and corresponding temperature rise were detected by extremely small shifts in the wavelength of the light scattered from graphene. That was sufficient to extract the values of the thermal conductivity through an elaborate mathematical procedure. Balandin’s research group discovered that the thermal conductivity of large suspended graphene sheets varies in the range from about 3000 to 5300 W/mK (watts per meter per degree Kelvin) near room temperature. These are very high values, which exceed those of carbon nanotubes (3,000-3,500 W/mK) and diamond (1,000-2,200 W/mK). As a result of his findings, Balandin has proposed several innovative graphene-based approaches for thermal management , which might lead to creation of a new technology for local cooling and hot-spot spreading in the high-power-density and ultra-fast chips. A detailed description of Balandin’s graphene and thermal management research can be found in his invited popular science article, â€Å"Chill Out,† in the October 2009 issue of IEEE Spectrum, the magazine of the The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE).